Application Of GPS In Civil Engineering

Application Of GPS In Civil Engineering

 

 

What is GPS?

The Term GPS stands for Global Positioning System. The GPS is used to locate a location
with the help of Latitude and Departure. with the help of GPS it's possible to locate a point
very precisely. GPS consist Of two main ends, the one is the Locating Sattelites and the other
 is the Receiver. Most of the people now a days are familier with GPS due to the huge use of
Smart Phones.
The Global Positioning System was first evoled for the Defence of Countries, and it's controlled
from the California. It was used for locating various places which are important from the
Defence point of view. Later on it was opened for public use. But the Same GPS System with
more Powerful receivers it can be used in the Civil Engineering Field.

How GPS Works ?

A point is located with the 18 sattelites which are orbiting around the Earth, 22,000 km above
the suface of the Earth, these sattelites are orbiting in 6 orbits, that means having 3 sattelites in
each orbit. And has a the capability to rotate a single time around Earth in 11 hours and 58
minutes. To locate a point two sattelite is requred, the more number of sattelites are in use the
more precision can be obtained.

Application In Civil Engineering

Most of the Companies uses manual procedure of Surveying (i.e. Levelling, Countouring,
Compass Surveying) to Prepare Countour Maps, Longitudinal Section Of Roads, Allignment
of Roads, Bridges etc. But many Broad Companies in India and abroad uses GPS to locate
different points, preparing Contour maps, giving Allignments of Roads, Bridges where the
 precision is very essential or it may ruine the whole project for a simple error in surveying,
on those places the survey work can be done with the help of Global Positioning System.

Advantages

1. It helps to survey with many times greater Precision.
2. It helps to complete a Survey with lesser time and thus helps to cut down the 
3. Completion Period.
4. It Reduces the Difficulty of taking manual measurements to great extent.
5. With GPS there is a very less chances of error.error only come due to the Instrument malfunction.

 

Disadvantages

1. The main Disadvantage is that, it requires high initial investments.
2. To conduct such High End Survey works and to operate such Electronic Equipments much skilled persons are required.

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Records Of BURJ KHALIFA

Records Of BURJ KHALIFA
==>>Tallest existing structure: 829.84 m (2,723 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast – 628.8 m/2,063 ft)

==>>Tallest structure ever built: 829.84 m (2,723 ft) (previously Warsaw radio mast – 646.38 m/2,121 ft)

==>>Tallest freestanding structure: 829.84 m (2,723 ft) (previously CN Tower – 553.3 m/1,815 ft)

==>>Tallest skyscraper (to top of spire): 829.84 m (2,723 ft) (previously Taipei 101 – 509.2 m/1,671 ft)

==>>Tallest skyscraper to top of antenna: 829.84 m (2,723 ft) (previously the Willis (formerly Sears) Tower – 527 m/1,729 ft)

==>>Building with most floors: 163 (previously Willis (formerly Sears) Tower – 108)

==>>Building with world's highest occupied floor

==>>World's highest installation of an aluminium and glass façade: 512 m (1,680 ft)

==>>World's highest nightclub: 144th floor

==>>World's highest restaurant (At.mosphere): 122nd floor at 442 m (1,450 ft) (previously 360, at a height of 350 m/1,148 ft in CN Tower)

==>>World's highest New Year display of fireworks.

==>>World's second highest swimming pool: 76th floor

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==>>COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST FOR CONCRETE==>>

AIM==>>

To determine the compressive strength of concrete cylinders.

APPARATUS==>>

Compression testing machine, cylinder mould of 150mm diameter and 300mm height, weighing balance.

PROCEDURE==>>

=>Cast the cylinder and cure for 28 days.

=>Takeout the specimen from the curing tank.

=>Wipe out the excess water from the surface of specimen.

=>Place the specimen vertically on the platform of compression testing machine.

=>Apply the load continuously and uniformly without shock at the rate of 315 kn/min. And continue the loading until the specimen fails.

=>Record the maximum load taken.

CALCULATIONS==>>

Range Calculation

Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days = N/ mm2

Area of cross section = (PI/4)*D^2

Expected load = stress x area

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH==>>

Compressive strength = Maximum load/ Cross sectional area

RESULT==>>

Compressive strength of cylinder =…………………….N/mm²

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==>>ALL ABOUT CIVIL ENGINEERING==>>

Civil Engineering plays an important role in solving the problems of a modern civilized society. Civil Engineers are involved in planning, design, construction, maintenance and management of physical infrastructure.   

 Select the following links to get more information about
                          CIVIL ENGINEERING

              ==>> HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION                                
                                                              
               ==>>STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
            
               ==>>STRUCTURE                                                                          
              
               ==>>SURVEYING

               ==>>ENVIRONMENTAL  
                                                            
               ==>>BUILDING MATERIAL

               ==>>FLUID MECHANICS 
                                                     
              ==>>BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
                         
              ==>>JOBS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
          

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==>>A CIVIL ENGINEER CAN WORK AS A ==>>

Airport Engineer==>>
Airport engineers specialise in preparing designs for airports, hangars and control towers.

Geotechnical/Soil Engineer==>>
 Geotechnical/soil engineers inspect proposed construction sites to determine soil and foundation conditions by conducting drilling and sampling programs. Duties include preparing specifications of soil mixtures for use in roads, embankments and other construction.

Harbour Engineer==>> 
Harbour engineers design and supervise the construction of harbour facilities such as breakwaters, navigation aids, navigation channels, jetties, wharves, heavy-duty pavement surfaces, cargo sheds and bulk handling plants for grain, ore and other cargo.

Highway Engineer==>>
 Highway engineers analyse population and growth statistics and traffic patterns and volume to project future requirements. Duties include designing efficient and safe traffic systems, studying roadway and embankment design, the geometry of highway interchanges and the maintenance of facilities such as culverts and overpasses.

Hydraulic/Water Resources Engineer==>>

 Hydraulic/water resources engineers design and supervise construction, advising on the operation, maintenance and repair of water resource facilities such as dams, aqueducts, hydro-electric plants, and water supply, drainage and sewerage systems. 

Irrigation/Drainage Engineer==>>

 Irrigation/drainage engineers use tests and measurements to analyse the characteristics of soil, including salinity, water table level,  areas of subnormal plant growth, soil type  and surface profile. 

Local Government Engineer==>>

 Local government engineers administer and supervise the design, construction and maintenance of projects like roads, drainage systems, pedestrian and cycle facilities, bridges, buildings, recreation grounds,  parks, waste disposal and water treatment schemes within a local government area. 

Materials and Testing Engineer==>>

 Materials and testing engineers conduct research, development tests and evaluation of the quality or suitability of materials and products such as asphalt, concrete, steel, cement, timber and plastics, taking into account factors like stresses and strains, estimated load, water pressures, wind resistance and temperature fluctuations related to projects.

Pipeline Engineer==>>

Pipeline engineers prepare design proposals for pipelines and pipeline equipment, facilities and structures in consultation with petroleum and mechanical engineers. 

Railway Engineer==>>

Railway engineers study design proposals, and advise on the construction, maintenance and repair of railway systems including tracks, terminals and yards. 

Structural Engineer==>>

 Structural engineers design the framework  of buildings, towers, bridges, water treatment structures, tunnels and other structures to ensure for strength and rigidity.

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==>>OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS OF FLUID MECHANICS==>>

1==>> A flow in which each liquid particle has a
definite path and their paths do not cross each
other, is called

(a) Steady flow
(b) Uniform flow.
(c) Streamline flow
(d) Turbulent flow

ANSWER: (c)

2==>> Buoyant force is

(a) Resultant of up thrust and gravity forces acting
on the body
(b) Resultant force on the body due to the fluid
surrounding it
(c) Resultant of static weight of body and
dynamic thrust of fluid’
(d) Equal to the volume of liquid displaced by
the body

 ANSWER: (d)

3==>> Cavitations is caused by
(a) High velocity
(b) Low barometric pressure
(c) High pressure
(d) Low pressure

 ANSWER: (d)

4==>>The general energy equation is applicable to
(a) Steady flow
(b) Unsteady flow
(c) Non-uniform flow
(d) Turbulent flow

 ANSWER: (a)

5==>>The friction resistance in Pipe is proportional
To Square of V , according to
(a) Froudeaiumber
(b) Reynolds-Weber
(c) Darcy-Reynolds
(d) Weber-Froude

 ANSWER: (a)

6==>>Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity head of
(a) Still fluid
(b) Laminar flow
(c) Turbulent flow
(d) Flowing fluid

ANSWER: (d)

7==>>In equilibrium condition, fluids are not able to sustain
(a) Shear force
(b) Resistance to viscosity
(c) Surface tension
(d) Geometric similitude

ANSWER: (c)


8==>>A large Reynold number is indication of
(a) Smooth and streamline flow
(b) Laminar flow
(c) Steady flow
(d) Highly turbulent flow

ANSWER: (d)

9==>> Which instrument used to measure velocity
(a) Orifice-meter
(b) Venturimeter
(c) Mouthpiece
(d) Pitot tube

ANSWER: (d)

10==>> If the density in a fluid flow changes with respect to length of direction of flow , it is called 
(a) steady flow
(b) compressible flow
(c) incompressible flow
(d) unsteady flow

ANSWER: (c)

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TYPES OF BRIDGES :

How do bridge's work????


Although there are many types of bridges most bridges work by balancing compression and tension. Place a flexible object like an eraser, sponge, or small piece of bread between your thumb and index finger. Press your fingers together. One side of the object will bend inwards and shorten while the other will bend outwards and lengthen. The shorter side has been compressed, while the other side is under tension. Bridge
components experience these tension and compression stresses



ARCH BRIDGE ==>>
Arch bridge are structures in which each span forms an arch. The arch bridge is one of the oldest types of bridges. Early arch bridges were made from stone. The spans range up to about 1700 ft.


GIRDER BRIDGES ==>>

Girder bridges are made of beams called girders. The ends of the beams or girders rest on piers or abutments. The span length of girder bridges ranges up to about 1000 ft.

TRUSS BRIDGE==>>

Truss bridges are supported by frameworks called trusses. Trusses are beams arranged to form triangles.

CANTILEVER BRIDGE==>>

Cantilever bridges consist of two independent beams, cantilevers, that extend from opposite banks of a waterway. Cantilever bridges have spans as long at 1800 ft.

CABLE STAYED BRIDGE==>>

Cable-stayed bridges have roadways that hang from cables. The cables are connected directly to towers.

MOVEABLE BRIDGE==>>

Moveable bridges have roadway that is moved to provide enough clearance for boats or large ships to pass. An example of a moveable bridge is a drawbridge that tilts the roadway upward.

SUSPENSION BRIDGES==>>

Suspension bridges may be the most impressive type of bridge with their long main span and beauty. These bridges have a roadway that hangs from steel cables supported by two high towers. The difference between suspension bridges and cable-stayed bridges is that suspension bridge cables are not directly connected to the towers. The cables of a suspension bridge are not connected to the bridge - the cables pass through a hole in the top of the towers.


A suspension bridge has at least two main cables. These cables extend from one end of the bridge to the other. Suspender cables hang from these main cables. The other end of the suspender attaches to the roadway.


Suspension bridges have the longest spans in the world and are used to cross great distances. These types of bridges are used to cross deep water channels, cannons or gorges, where construction of supporting piers can be difficult. The towers can be placed far apart eliminating the need for multiple towers and piers. Some suspension bridges have a main span longer then 4000 ft. The longest suspension bridge in the world is in Japan (the Akashi- Kaikyo Bridge) and has a span over a mile long. The largest bridges have cables several feet wide which weigh thousands of pounds per foot. For that reason the cables are spun in place.

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==>> RESEARCH ON TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING==>>

A Goal-Oriented Method for Urban transport Strategy Development for Indian
Metropolitan Areas==>>


Most of the Indian cities today are typically characterized by high-density urban areas, absence of proper control on land use, lack of proper roads and parking facilities, poor public transport, lack of road user discipline etc. The resultant effects are; increased traffic congestion and transport-borne pollution, heavy fuel consumption, poor level of service to the commuter etc.


So far, only isolated approaches to solve single problems are used in most of the Indian cities. An integrated approach which considers different combinations of measures (in infrastructure and traffic management) and their joint impact on the different goal areas (mobility, safety, environment, economy etc.) are fairly not used. Approaches traditionally adopted for developing urban transport strategies for Indian cities are bottom-up in nature and focus largely on infrastructure expansion and do not adequately consider traffic and demand management measures. Hence, the study will focus on a goal-oriented and cooperative method for establishing comprehensive urban transport strategies for Indian Metropolitan Areas


Development of a Simultaneous Approach for Integrated Mass Transit Planning==>>

The objective of this project would be to develop a simultaneous and iterative approach for
planning an effective and efficient integrated urban mass transit system for any city which
has a potential demand for a new rail-based mass transit system besides the street transit
system and any existing rail-based system

Air Travel Demand Modeling for Indian Cities==>>


This would involve work on developing a model for forecasting air travel demand for Indian cities. Unfortunately in India, there has not been any scientific approach used for forecasting the air travel demand. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) forecasts predict worldwide growth in air traffic at 5% a year or doubling in the volume of traffic once in 14 years. Similar trend has been adopted in India for forecasting the air travel demand. Airport Authority of India (AAI) has considered a growth rate of 7% for the period 2007 to 2011. AAI has extended this growth rate for the period 2012-2017, and is taken as 6%. Rapid economic development that has been seen in the last one decade resulted in unpredicted growth in air traffic. A growth rate of 24 % has been observed in over all domestic air traffic for the year 2004-2005. From the observations it can be concluded that there has not been much work done in the past regarding air traffic demand forecasting in India. Trends observed in international air traffic are currently being used for forecasting air traffic in Indian skies. Hence, there is a clear requirement for taking up this study to develop a proper air-travel demand forecasting model for Indian cities.


Development of a Web-based Transit Passenger Information System (PIS) Design==>>

This study includes work on a web-based multi-objective and Generalized Cost (GC) based.Passenger Information System (PIS) design for multi-modal transit system that integrates geo-informatics, network analysis, user-interfacing and database management. The GC approach for trip planning is especially important in Indian scenario, where the various modes of transport are generally not harmonized, and the transfer time from one mode to another may be very large. It also imitates the natural tendency of public transport users to attach differential importance to various legs of a trip (walking, waiting, travel time etc.),
while planning for it...

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==>> THEORY OF STRAIN==>>

STRAIN==>> When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of the body. The ratio of the change in dimension of the body to the original dimension is known as strain..
=>Strain is dimension less quantity...

generally STRAIN = change in length / original length 

TYPES OF STRAIN==>>
=> TENSILE STRAIN 
=> COMPRESSIVE STRAIN
=>VOLUMETRIC  STRAIN
=>SHEAR STRAIN

TENSILE STRAIN==>> If there is some increase in length of the body due to external force, then ratio of increase of length to the original length of the body is known as tensile strain.

COMPRESSIVE STRAIN==>> If there is some decrease in length of the body , then the ratio of decrease in length of the body to the original length is known as compressive strain.

VOLUMETRIC STRAIN==>> The ratio of change in the volume of the body to the original volume of the body is known as volumetric strain..

SHEAR STRAIN==>> The strain produce of shear stress is known as shear strain.. 

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==>>DEFECTS IN CONCRETE==>>

==>>DEFECTS IN CONCRETE==>>

EFFLORESCENCE ==>> Is the appearance of fluffy white patches on the surface of concrete members. It
is caused by poorly washed aggregate, salty water used in making concrete the salts being leaching out to the surface by rain water afterwards. As the water evaporates white patches appear on the surface. This defect can be controlled to some extent by coating the surface by a water repellent.


SEGREGATION==>>

usually implies separation of: =>1 coarse aggregate from fine aggregate, =>2  paste from coarse aggregate, or water from the mix and the ingredients of the fresh concrete no longer remain uniformly distributed. It can be reduced by increasing small size coarse aggregate, air entrainment, using dispersing agents and puzzolana.The causes of segregation are dropping concrete from heights, badly designed mixes, concrete carried over long distances—pumping, belt conveyor system etc. over vibrations, and during concrete finishing extra floating and tamping.Segregation mainly occurs in dry non-sticky concrete mixes.

CRAZING ==>>

of concrete products results from differences in shrinkage between the surface and the interior. The cracks rarely exceed 12 mm or so in depth, and are therefore not serious, apart from the unsightliness. The best method to overcome crazing is to be either to use an earthmoist mix, or if a plastic mix is necessary use as low a w/c ratio as is practicable and remove the cement skin to expose the aggregate. Trowelling should be avoided, as the surfaces are prone to crazing.

BLEEDING==>>

defined as an autogeneous flow of mixing water within or emergence to the surface from freshly placed concrete is usually due to excessive vibrations imparted to concrete to achieve full compaction. However well concrete may have been compacted, the force of gravity.This upward migration of water known as bleeding ceases either when the solid particles touch each other and cannot settle any more, or when the concrete stiffens due to cement hydration and prevents further movement. It can be reduced by grinding cement fine, or by using air entraining agents, dispersing agents, puzzolanas and by imparting vibration. It is a

particular form of segregation in which some of the water comes out on the surface of concrete. Mixes which bleed excessively are those which are harsh and not sufficiently cohesive. Basically this is caused by the lack of very fine materials in mix. Obviously this is because of the coarse sand or when the sand content has been kept low. The causes of bleeding are highly wet mix, insufficient mixing, and thin sections (slabs) cast in sunny weather—being more in flaky aggregate and more in the first hours of concreting. The ill effects are reduced bond between aggregate and cement, and between cement and reinforcement.


Bleeding can be checked by the use of uniformly graded aggregates, puzzolana—by breaking the continuous water channel, or by using—entraining agents, finer cement, alkali cement, and a rich mix.

SULFATE ATTACK==>>

Sulphate attack is mainly caused by the soil containing sulphates or by sulphate water.

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FACTOR AFFECTING WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE:

 FACTOR AFFECTING WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE:

WATER CONTENT: The fluidity of concrete increases with water content. At site the normal practice is to increase the water content to make the concrete workable which lowers strength. In controlled concrete this cannot be resorted and even in uncontrolled concrete this should be the last choice. However, in case if more water is added due to any reason the cement content should be proportionately increased.

MIX PROPORTIONS:
Aggregate-cement ratio influences the workability to a large extent. The higher the ratio leaner will be the concrete. In a lean concrete, paste available for lubrication of per unit surface area of aggregates will be less and hence the workability is reduced.

AGGREGATE SIZE:
For big size aggregate the total surface area to be wetted is less, also less paste is required for lubricating the surface to reduce internal friction. For a given water content big size aggregate give high workability.

SHAPE OF AGGREGATE:
For a given water content, round and cubical shape aggregates are more workable than rough, angular or flaky aggregates, because the former type of aggregates requires less cement paste for lubrication as these have less surface area and lesser voids. In case of round aggregates frictional resistance is also small so less lubrication is required. For this reason river sand and gravel provide greater workability than crushed sand and aggregates.

SURFACE TEXTURE:
A rough surface aggregate will have more surface area than a smooth round textured aggregate. Hence, latter will be more workable for the reasons discussed above.

GRADING OF AGGREGATES:
Properly graded aggregates are more workable. It is so because such a mix will have least voids and thus excess cement paste will be available as lubricant. This also prevents segregation.

ADMIXTURES:
Air entrained concrete is more workable. It is so because air forms bubbles, on which the aggregates slide past each other increasing the workability. Another factor is that air entraining agents are surface active and they reduce the internal friction between the aggregates.

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SLUMP TEST FOR CONCRETE :

SLUMP TEST FOR CONCRETE :

           

This method of test specifies the procedure to be adopted, either in the laboratory or during the progress of work in the field, for determining the consistency of concrete where the nominal maximum size of the aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.


The internal dimensions of the mould are ==>>

bottom diameter = 200 mm, top diameter = 100 mm, and height = 300 mm.


The mould is filled in with fresh concrete in four layers, each approximately one-quarter of the height and tamped with twenty-five strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. The strokes are distributed in a uniform manner over the cross-section and for the second and subsequent layers should penetrate into the underlying layer. The bottom layer is tamped throughout its depth. After the top layer has been rodded, the
concrete is struck off level with a trowel or the tamping rod, so that the mould is exactly filled. The mould is removed immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump is measured immediately by determining the difference between the height of the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen being tested.

The slump measured is recorded in terms of millimetres of subsidence of the specimen.

==>>  Some indication of the cohesiveness and workability of the mix can be obtained , if after the slump measurement has been completed , the side of the concrete is tapped gently with the tamping rod , a well proportioned concrete of an appreciable slump will gradually slump further , but if the mix has been badly proportioned , it is likely to fall apart..


==>>The test is performed with maximum size of aggregate as 38 mm only. however if the aggregate size is larger the concrete is wet sieved through 38 mm screen to exclude aggregate particles bigger than 38 mm...

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==>>VARIOUS TYPES OF PUMPS OTHER THAN BASIC PUMPS==>>

OTHER TYPES OF PUMPS==>>

=>AIR LIFT PUMP

=>JET PUMP

=>HYDRAULIC RAM

For more types of pumps other than these three ==>>BASIC TYPES OF PUMPS

AIR LIFT PUMP==>>

Air lift pump working based on the mixture of water and air..IN such a pump , compressed air is forced into the well through a small air pipe and is released through a diffuser into the eduction pipe at the bottom of the well..

The air bubbles rise with water in eduction pipe ... The mixture of air and water is lighter in inside the pipe than the outside of the pipe, thats why it forced upward by hydrostatic pressure..

The reclaimed air is generally cooler than the atmospheric air and can be compressed more cheaply..

Air lift pumps can be used for high lifts upto 150 m..Their efficiency is generally low about 25 to 50 %...

JET PUMPS==>>

Jet pumps works same as airlift pump.. concept is same for both pumps bu arrangement is different.. Air is compressed in pipe by throat of pipe... and mixture of water and air upward the water due to hydrostatic pressure..

CONSIDERATIONS WHEN INSTALLING OR OPERATING JET PUMPS==>>

Installation==>>Penberthy Jet Pumps will operate in any position. They should be installed with minimum length of piping and with as few elbows and valves as possible to limit friction losses.

Inlet piping==>> Piping must be large enough to supply jet pump at maximum flow. Inlet pressure should be as specified in the performance data for the application.

Suction piping==>>To insure maximum capacity and highest possible vacuum, all suction piping must be airtight. When lifting liquids by suction, locate the jet as close to the liquid level as practical, with the
remainder of the elevation on the discharge side. Design pressure loss should not exceed two feet, including
strainer, foot valve and other piping at design suction flow rate.


Discharge piping==>> Piping should be equal in size to that of the pump. If discharge line is long, piping size should be increased to minimize the discharge head.


Start-up of steam jet pumps==>> When starting steam jet pumps, the steam valve should be opened slowly to enable the unit to start smoothly. All valves should then be adjusted to permit operation according to design conditions

                                                           AIRLIFT PUMP

HYDRAULIC RAM==>>

Hydraulic ram based on water hammer pressure ..water hammer pressure is the pressure applied in inside the pipe due to water..when we suddenly close valve ..in inside the pipe positive and negative wave generate and increase the pressure  in inside of pipe due to that pressure discharge increase..

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==>>TYPES OF PUMPS==>>

TYPES OF PUMPS==>>
There are various types of pumps, but the two types which the hydraulic engineers generally encounter are :

1=> Roto -dynamic pumps
2=> Displacement pumps

ROTO-DYNAMIC PUMPS==>>
A rotodynamic pump has a wheel or a rotating element which rotates the water in a casing, and thus imparting energy to the water . The rotodynamic pumps do have a wheel type rotating element called impeller. The shape of the impeller may be such, as to force the water outward in a direction at right angles to its axis..

TYPES OF ROTO- DYNAMIC PUMPS=>
=> Centrifugal pump
=> Axial flow pump


IN general radial flow and mixed flow machines are commonly called centrifugal pumps.
whereas the axial flow machines are called axial flow pumps..



DISPLACEMENT PUMPS==>>
A displacement pump works on the principle of mechanically including vacuum in a chamber, thereby drawing in a volume of water which is then mechanically displaced and forced out of the chamber .

TYPES OF DISPLACEMENT PUMP=>
=>Reciprocating pump
=>Rotary pump

Reciprocating pump is a hand operated hand pump.....whereas in rotary pumps the rotary motion is used in place of a reciprocating motion ..The rotary motion is obtained by using two gears which mesh together and rotate in opposite directions.

OTHER TYPES OF PIPE ==>>

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==>>DEEP FOUNDATION==>>

DEEP FOUNDATION==>>
Deep foundation are those in which the depth of the foundation is very large i comparison to its width.. Deep foundation are not constructed by ordinary methods of open pit excavations.

TYPE OF DEEP FOUNDATION==>>

1==> PILE FOUNDATION
2==> PIER FOUNDATION
3==> CAISSON FOUNDATION


PILE FOUNDATION==>> Pile foundation is that type of foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by means of vertical members which may be of timber , concrete or steel...

PIER FOUNDATION==>> A pier foundation consists of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support and transfer large super imposed loads to the firm strata below..
The difference between pile foundation and pier foundation lies in the method of construction.Though pile foundation transfer the load through friction or bearing , pier foundation transfer the loads only through bearing.

CAISSON FOUNDATION==>> Well foundation or caissons are box like structure circular or rectangular which are sunk from the surface of either land or water to the desired depth.
They are much larger diameter than pier foundations.
Use of well foundation
=> Wharves , quay walls , docks.
=> Bridge piers and abutments in rivers, lakes etc.
=>Large water front structures such as pump houses , subjected to heavy vertical and horizontal loads.

==>> Well foundation are hollow from inside , which may filled with sand , ans are plugged at the bottom. The load is transferred through the perimeter wall, called steining.
This foundation are not use for buildings construction...

TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION==>>

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==>> CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS==>>

==>> CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS==>>

FIRST CLASS BRICKS==>>

1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour.
2. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges
and square corners.
3. These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
4. These should have uniform texture.
5. No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.
6. The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.
7. A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.
8. Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for
24 hours.
9. The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit varies
with different Government organizations around the country.
Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry
structures, flooring and reinforced brick work.

SECOND CLASS BRICKS==>>


  Are supposed to have the same requirements as the first class ones except that

1. Small cracks and distortions are permitted.
2. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed.
3. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2.
Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry
works and centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structures.


THIRD CLASS BRICKS==>>

Are underburnt. They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull sound when struck against
each other. Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry weight.

Uses : It is used for building temporary structures.

FORTH CLASS BRICKS==>>
Are overburnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle in
nature.

Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road
metal.

==>>

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-==>>LEVLLING==>>

-==>>LEVLLING

The primary reference at water-level recording stations is a set of stable bench-marks, installed in locations where their level should not change. Upon initial set-up of a station, the levels of the  relevant parts of the installation are established and recorded by means of accurate levelling. At least every two years, the levels of the staff gauges, sensor level, internal gauge, tower structure and benchmarks should be measured relative to each other as a check that records are not in error
due to bank subsidence or other movement. Accurate levelling is thus a particularly important part of site establishment, installation and quality assurance. All staff shall be thoroughly familiar with its theory and practice. Levelling and surveying methods are also used for measurements of river channel and lake
configurations. Often, less accurate methods can be used for this work than for water-level recording stations, although the techniques are common.

==>>TERMS USE IN LEVLLING


Differential levelling => is the term applied to any method of measuring directly with a graduated staff the difference in elevation between two or more points.

Precise levelling=>  is a particularly accurate method of differential levelling which uses highly accurate levels and with a more rigorous observing procedure than general engineering levelling. It aims to achieve high orders of accuracy such as 1 mm per 1 km traverse.

 level surface=>A level surface is a surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the direction of the force of
gravity. An example is the surface of a completely still lake. For ordinary levelling, level surfaces at different elevations can be considered to be parallel.

=>
A level datum is an arbitrary level surface to which elevations are referred. The most common surveying datum is mean sea-level (MSL), but as hydrological work is usually just concerned with levels in a local area, we often use:
An assumed datum, which is established by giving a benchmark an assumed value (e.g. 100.000
m) to which all levels in the local area will be reduced. It is not good practice to assume a level which is close to the actual MSL value, as it creates potential for confusion.

=>
A reduced level is the vertical distance between a survey point and the adopted level datum. A bench mark (BM) is the term given to a definite, permanent accessible point of known height above a datum to which the height of other points can be referred.

=>

Height of Collimation is the elevation of the optical axis of the telescope at the time of the setup. The line of collimation is the imaginary line at the elevation

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==>> SUB SOIL EXPLORATION<<==

==>> The purposes of subsoil exploration include the following:

l. Determining the nature of soil at the site and its stratification

2. Obtaining disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for visual identification and

appropriate laboratory tests

3. Determining the depth and nature of bedrock, if and when encountered

4. Performing somc in sl/u lield tests, such as permeability tests. vane

shear tests , and standard penetration tests

5. Observing drainage conditions from and into thc site

6. Assessinga ny special construction problems with respect to the existing  structure  nearby

7. Determining the position of the water table

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==>> MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD'S THEORY IN VERY SIMPLE WAY<<==

                                       ==>> MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
                                                                         OR
                                                    [HARDY -CROSS METHOD]
                                                                         OR
                                      METHOD OF SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION<<==

==>>   It is based on stiffness approach and stiffness is defined as the moment required to produce unit rotation....

FIRST we have to clear all terms which we are going to learn in this method

K=STIFFNESS,
I=MOMENT OF INERTIA,
E=MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
L=LENGTH OF WHOLE SPAN

In this method some formulas are given bellow ==>>

1==>> If the far end is fixed then stiffness is ==>> K= 4EI/L

2==>>If the far end is hinged then stiffness is ==>> K=3EI/L

3==>>If the far end is free then stiffness is ==>> K=0

Here is the example==>>

Fixed far end are==>> OB and OD
Free far end are==>> OF
Hinged far end are==>> OC and OE

Length of each span  OB=L1 ,,, OD=L2 ,,, OF =L3 ,,, OC=L4 ,,, OE=L5

Now we have to calculate individual and total stiffness==>>
Stiffness of OB IS ==>> K1=4EI / L1 [FAR END B IS FIXED]
Stiffness of OD is ==>> K2=4EI / L2  [FAR END D IS FIXED]
Stiffness of OF is ==>> K3=K=0    [FAR END F IS FREE]
Stiffness of OC is ==>> K4=3EI / L4  [FAR END C IS HINGED]
Stiffness of OE is ==>>  K5=3EI / L5  [FAR END E IS HINGED]

Now we have to calculate TOTAL STIFFNESS ,so
TOTAL STIFFNESS ==>>K=K1+K2+K3+K4+K5
K=4EI / L1+4EI / L2+0+3EI / L4+3EI / L5

After this steps we have to calculate RELATIVE STIFFNESS ==>>

RELATIVE STIFFNESS is defined as the individual stiffness/total stiffness

==>>RELATIVE STIFFNESS of all members are==>>

For OB=K1 / K;
For OD=K2 / K;
For OF=K3 / K;
For OC=K4 / K;
For OE=K5 / K;

Some other terms used in MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD are==>>

CARRY OVER MOMENT==>>
If moment M is applied at a joint B then carry over moment is the moment which is develop at the far end..

==>> If any beam fixed at one end and supported at other end ...then moment develop at the fixed end is half of the moment develop at the supported end...

A==>>FIXED END , B==>> SUPPORTED END...
MOMENT AT B= M
Then MOMENT develop in A is = M / 2;

CARRY OVER FACTOR==>> is given by

CARRY OVER MOMENT /  APPLIED MOMENT

MOMENT ABOUT A / MOMENT ABOUT B

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==>>INTRODUCTION OF TAR ASPHALT AND BITUMEN <<==

==>>INTRODUCTION OF TAR ASPHALT AND BITUMEN ==>>

==>>>

Bitumen and bituminous materials have been known and used in construction works since ancient times, approximately 6000 B.C. Asphalts were used as cements to hold stonework together in boat building and as waterproofing in pools and baths. Some asphalt was mixed with stand and used to pave streets and palace floors. The Egyptians made use of asphalt in the mummification process and as a building material. The Greeks and Romans not only used asphalt as a building material but also used burning asphalt as a military weapon. The asphalt used by these ancient civilizations was natural asphalt formed when crude petroleum oils rose to the earth’s surface and formed pools. The action of the sun and wind drove off the lighter
oils and gases, leaving a heavy residue. The residue was asphalt with impurities such as water and soil present. Using crude distillation process, cementing and waterproofing materials were obtained.

==>>
The word bitumen comes from the original sanskrit word Gwitumen applied to native asphalts as fuel. Bitumens are mainly composed of a mixture of high-molecular hydrocarbons, methane, napthane and other aromatic series and their oxygen or sulphur derivatives. Tar and asphalt are the two varieties of bituminous materials. Tars are bituminous condensates obtained in the process of destructive distillation of coal, petroleum, wood and other organic materials at high temperature without access of air. They are composed of hydrocarbons and their sulphurous, nitrous and oxygen derivatives. Asphalt on the other hand is a naturally
occurring bitumen which is a combination of an inorganic mineral matter either calcareous or siliceous and an organic matter—a chemical compound of carbon and hydrogen. Bitumens and bituminous materials are being extensively used in damp proofing the basements, floors, roofs, damp proof courses; painting timber and steel structural elements...


Bitumens and bituminous materials are being extensively used in damp proofing the basements, floors, roofs, damp proof courses; painting timber and steel structural elements..as adhesives and caulking compounds, and tars are used as binders in road works. When combined with aggregate these are also used to provide floor surfaces. Bitumens are now more commonly used for building purposes than is tar....



==>> BITUMEN==>>


Bitumen is a noncrystalline solid or viscous material derived from petroleum, by natural or refinery process and substantially soluble in carbon disulphide. It is asphalt in solid state and mineral tar in semi fluid state. Bitumen is brown or black in colour..

The main constituent is petrolene—a yellowish oily substance, an excess of which makes bitumen to melt at low temperature and, asphaltene—hard black substance, an excess of which makes bitumen brittle and non-plastic. Its compositions is carbon 87 per cent, hydrogen 11 per cent and oxygen 2 per cent.



==>>TAR==>>


It is a dark (deep black) viscous liquid produced by destructive distillation of organic material such as coal, oil, lignite and wool. Depending upon the source of origin it is classified as coal tar, wood tar and mineral tar. Tar is restraint to petroleum-based solvents. It has very low bitumen content.



==>>ASPHALT==>>


Asphalt is a natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen is associated with inert mineral matter. It is black or brownish black in colour. At temperature between 50–100°C it is in liquid state whereas at temperature less than this it remains in solid state. Because it is a thermoplastic material it softens as it is heated and hardens as it is cooled. It is the basic paving material in use today...

<<===

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