===>> PRINCIPLE OF BRIDGE LOCATION<<===

===>> PRINCIPLE OF BRIDGE LOCATION<<===

==>>>

The basic principle for locating highway bridges is that the highway location should determine the bridge location, not the reverse. When the bridge is located first, in most cases the resulting highway alignment is not the best. The general procedure for most highways, therefore, is to first determine the best highway location and then determine the bridge site. In some cases, this will result in skewed bridges, which are more expensive to construct, or in locations where foundation problems exist. When serious problems of this nature occur, all factors such as highway alignments, construction costs of the bridge deck and its foundation, and construction costs of bridge approaches should be considered in order to determine a compromise route alignment that will give a suitable bridge site. This will include completing the transportation
planning process and the economic evaluation of the benefits and costs..

A detailed report should be prepared for the bridge site selected to determine whether there are any factors that make the site unacceptable. This report should include accurate data on soil stratification, the engineering properties of each soil stratum at the location, the crushing strength of bedrock, and water levels in the
channel or waterway.

 When the waterway to be crossed requires a major bridge structure, however, it is
necessary to first identify a narrow section of the waterway with suitable foundation conditions for the location of the bridge and then determine acceptable highway alignments that cross the waterway at that section. This will significantly reduce the cost of bridge construction in many situations.

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==>>Indian Academy of Highway Engineers ==>> ( IAHE )

==>>Indian Academy of Highway Engineers ==>> ( IAHE )

==>>

Is the apex training institute set up to address the training needs of Highway and Bridge Engineers in the country. It was set up as an Institute in the year 1983 with the primary objective to fulfill the need for training of highway engineers at the entry level and during the service.

IAHE conducts regular training programmes for the Engineers & highway sector professionals of Central Govenment organizations, State Government organizations, Public sector units, private sector, stake holders of multi-lateral agencies like World Bank, Asian Development Bank, etc.

On specific demand, customized training programmes for Engineers & highway sector professionals or Indian organizations as well as Foreign organizations are also conducted.

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==>> What are the advantages of using rockfill over earthfill to build road embankment? <<==

==>> What are the advantages of using rockfill over earthfill to build road embankment? <<==

==>>
With the use of rockfill to build embankment, it is not a concern regarding the build-up of pore water pressure during construction so that the embankment can be filled at the faster rate. Moreover, the use of rockfill
allows a steeper angle in forming road embankment when compared with earthfill so that it results in a small amount of fill. As such, it helps save the cost of construction.

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==>>A Study of Axle Overloadings On A Rural Road In Nigeria <<==

==>>A Study of Axle Overloadings On A Rural Road In Nigeria <<==


This paper presents the outcome of the axle load survey on a section of a rural trunk road in Nigeria in order to ascertain the contribution of overloaded goods vehicles to pavement failure. Seven day classified traffic and axle load survey was conducted for the determination of ADT, percentage heavy vehicle and the imposed axle load at respective axle position for the traversing vehicles on the Old Jos –Kaduna road, Kaduna state Nigeria. The proportion of the vehicle laden weight carried by each axle and the corresponding standard axle load (sal) was computed with the index model of power 4. The percentage and magnitude of overloaded axles were respectively determined as an indicative measure of the extent of structural damage to the pavement. The studied pavement was overstressed up to five times beyond the Nigeria standard axle load of 80kN, which was too high and hence constituting the hindsight to frequent structural damage to road pavements in Nigeria. It was recommended that the axle load control with weigh-in-motion weighing bridges to assure protection of the road from failure be instituted that will impact less disturbance to normal traffic flow on the arterial.

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==>>PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY LOCATION<<==

==>>LOCATION ==>>GEOMETRICS==>>DRAINAGE<<==

Highway location involves the acquisition of data concerning the terrain upon which the road will traverse and the economical siting of an alignment. To be considered are factors of earthwork, geologic conditions, and land use. Geometric design principles are used to establish the horizontal and vertical alignment,
including consideration of the driver, the vehicle, and roadway characteristics. Design of parking and terminal facilities must be considered as they form an integral part of the total system. Since the new highway will alter existing patterns of surface and subsurface flow—and be influenced by it—careful attention to the design of drainage facilities is required....

==>>
PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY LOCATION


The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway elements such as curvature and grade must blend with each other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow of traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design criteria and safety standards. The highway should also cause a minimal disruption to historic and archeological sites and to other land-use activities. Environmental impact studies are therefore required in most cases before a highway location is finally agreed upon.

==>>>

The highway location process involves four phases:

==>> Office study of existing information
==>> Reconnaissance survey
==>> Preliminary location survey
==>>Final location survey

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==>>SOIL SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION<<==

                   ==>>SOIL SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION<<==
==>>


Soil surveys for highway construction entail the investigation of the soil characteristics on the highway route and the identification of suitable soils for use as sub base and fill materials. Soil surveys are therefore normally an integral part of preliminary location surveys, since the soil conditions may significantly affect the location of the highway. A detailed soil survey is always carried out on the final highway location. The first step in any soil survey is in the collection of existing information on the soil characteristics of the area in which the highway is to be located. Such information can be obtained from geological and agricultural soil maps, existing aerial photographs,and an examination of excavations and existing roadway cuts. It is also usually
helpful to review the design and construction of other roads in the area. The information obtained from these sources can be used to develop a general understanding of the soil conditions in the area and to identify any unique problems that may exist.The extent of additional investigation usually depends on the amount of existing information that can be obtained. The next step is to obtain and investigate enough soil samples along the highway route to identify the boundaries of the different types of soils so that a soil profile can
be drawn. Samples of each type of soil along the route location are obtained by auger boring or from test pits for laboratory testing. Samples are usually taken at different depths down to about five feet. In cases where rock locations are required, depths may be increased. The engineering properties of the samples are then determined and used to classify the soils. It is important that the characteristics of the soils in each hole
be systematically recorded, including the depth, location, thickness, texture, and so forth. It is also important that the location of the water level be noted. These data are then used to plot a detailed soil profile along the highway

==>>Geophysical Methods of Soil Exploration

Soil profiles can also be obtained from one of two geophysical methods of soil exploration known as the resistivity and seismic methods.

              1==>>Resistivity Method


The resistivity method is based on the difference in electrical conductivity or resistivity
of different types of soils.


              2==>>Seismic Method

The seismic method is used to identify the location of rock profiles or dense strata

underlying softer materials..

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==>>Traffic Volumes on HIGHWAY==>>

                                   ==>>Traffic Volumes on HIGHWAY<<==

==>>

No intersection can be properly designed without first obtaining accurate traffic counts and reliable projections for the design year of the project. Traffic counts are best determined from actual field counts, including all turning movements, and are broken down by vehicle type. Vehicle types are divided into two groups.The first group includes passenger cars and type A commercial vehicles (pickup trucks and light delivery trucks not using dual tires).The second group includes type B commercial vehicles (tractor, semitrailer, truck-trailer combinations) and type C commercial vehicles (buses, dual-tired trucks with single or tandem rear axles).Adjustments are made to field counts to allow for day of the week, month of the year,
time of day, and other site-related factors that may have a significant effect on the counts. Most urbanized areas have regional planning agencies that either provide or certify the traffic data used in intersection design.

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==>>BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING<<==

==>>BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING<<==

The transportation planning process comprises seven basic elements, which are interrelated and not necessarily carried out sequentially. The information acquired in one phase of the process may be helpful in some earlier or later phase, so there is a continuity of effort that should eventually result in a decision. The elements in the process are:



=>Situation definition
=> Problem definition
=> Search for solutions
=> Analysis of performance
=> Evaluation of alternatives
=> Choice of project
=> Specification and construction


==>>Situation Definition==>>


The first step in the planning process is situation definition, which involves all of the activities required to understand the situation that gave rise to the perceived need for a transportation improvement. In this phase, the basic factors that created the present situation are described, and the scope of the system to be studied is delineated. The present system is analyzed and its characteristics are described. Information about
the surrounding area, its people, and their travel habits may be obtained. Previous reports and studies that may be relevant to the present situation are reviewed and  additional noise or air pollution will occur if the transportation facility is built. Usually, cost is a major factor, and so the process will include estimates of the construction, maintenance, and operating costs.


==>>Problem Definition==>>


The purpose of this step is to describe the problem in terms of the objectives to be accomplished by the project and to translate those objectives into criteria that can be quantified. Objectives are statements of purpose, such as to reduce traffic congestion; to improve safety; to maximize net highway-user benefits; and to reduce noise. Criteria are the measures of effectiveness that can be used to quantify the extent to
which a proposed transportation project will achieve the stated objectives. For example, the objective “to reduce traffic congestion” might use “travel time” as the measure of effectiveness. The characteristics of an acceptable system should be identified, and specific limitations and requirements should be noted. Also, any pertinent standards and restrictions that the proposed transportation project must conform to should be understood.

==>>Search for Solutions==>>


In this phase of the planning process, consideration is given to a variety of ideas, designs, locations, and system configurations that might provide solutions to the problem. This is the brainstorming stage, in which many options may be proposed for later testing and evaluation. Alternatives can be proposed by any group or organization. In fact, the planning study may have been originated to determine the feasibility of a particular project or idea, such as adding bike lanes to reduce traffic volumes. The transportation engineer has a variety of options available in any particular situation, and any or all may be considered in this idea-generating phase. Among the options that might be used are different types of transportation technology or vehicles, various system or network arrangements, and different methods of operation. This phase
also includes preliminary feasibility studies, which might narrow the range of choices to those that appear most promising. Some data gathering, field testing, and cost estimating may be necessary at this stage to determine the practicality and financial feasibility of the alternatives being proposed.

==>>Analysis of Performance==>>


The purpose of performance analysis is to estimate how each of the proposed alternatives would perform under present and future conditions. The criteria identified in the previous steps are calculated for each transportation option. Included in this step is a determination of the investment cost of building the transportation project, as well as annual costs for maintenance and operation. This element also involves the use of mathematical models for estimating travel demand. The number of persons or vehicles that will use the system is determined, and these results, expressed in vehicles or persons/hour, serve as the basis for project design. Other information about the use of the system (such as trip length, travel by time of day, and vehicle occupancy) are also determined and used in calculating user benefits for various criteria or measures
of effectiveness. Environmental effects of the transportation project (such as noise and air pollution levels and acres of land required) are estimated. These nonuser impacts are calculated in situations where the transportation project could have significant impacts on the community or as required by law.

==>>Evaluation of Alternatives==>>



The purpose of the evaluation phase is to determine how well each alternative will achieve the objectives of the project as defined by the criteria. The performance data produced in the analysis phase are used to compute the benefits and costs that will result if the project is selected. In cases where the results cannot be reduced to a single monetary value, a weighted ranking for each alternative might be produced and compared with other proposed projects.For those effects that can be described in monetary terms, the benefit–cost ratio (described in Chapter 13) for each project is calculated to show the extent to which the project would be a sound investment. Other economic tests might also be applied, including the net present worth of benefits and costs.

==>>Choice of Project<<==



Project selection is made after considering all the factors involved. In a simple situation,for example, where the project has been authorized and is in the design phase,a single criterion (such as cost) might be used and the chosen project would be the one with the lowest cost. With a more complex project, however, many factors have to be considered, and selection is based on how the results are perceived by those
involved in decision-making. If the project involves the community, it may be necessary to hold additional public hearings. A bond issue or referendum may be required. It is possible that none of the alternatives will meet the criteria or standards, and additional investigations will be necessary. The transportation engineer, who participates in the planning process, may have developed a strong opinion as to which alternative
to select. Such bias could result in the early elimination of promising alternatives or the presentation to decision-makers of inferior projects. If the engineer is acting professionally and ethically, he or she will perform the task such that the appropriate information is provided to make an informed choice and that every feasible alternative has been considered.

==>>Specification and Construction<<==


Once the transportation project has been selected, the project moves into a detailed design phase in which each of the components of the facility is specified. For a transportation facility, this involves its physical location, geometric dimensions, and structural configuration. Design plans are produced that can be used by contractors to estimate the cost of building the project. When a construction firm is selected, these plans
will be the basis on which the project will be built.

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==>> HIGHWAY SYSTEM , NUMBERING AND JURISDICTION<<==

                  ==>> HIGHWAY SYSTEM , NUMBERING AND JURISDICTION<<==

The Transportation Statistics Office coordinates and maintains data on various highway system designations. Federal Aid Systems, the National Highway System, functional classification, and urban boundaries are developed in a cooperative process with local officials and FDOT according to Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) requirements, and approved by FHWA before becoming effective. The SIS and FIHS are designated by FDOT, with input from local governments, highway users, and other interested parties.

State Road numbers are assigned by FDOT, and County Road numbers by the counties (with guidance from FDOT). US and Interstate numbers are approved by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

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==>> TRANSPORTING SYSTEM AND ORGANIZATION<<==

==>> TRANSPORTING SYSTEM  AND ORGANIZATION<<==

==>>

The transportation system in a developed nation is an aggregation of vehicles, guide-ways, terminal facilities, and control systems that move freight and passengers.These systems are usually operated according to established procedures and schedules in the air, on land, and on water. The set of physical facilities, control systems, and operating procedures referred to as the nation’s transportation system is not a system in the sense that each of its components is part of a grand plan or was developed in a conscious manner to meet a set of specified regional or national goals and objectives. Rather, the system has evolved over a period of time and is the result of many independent actions taken by the private and public sectors, which act in their
own or in the public’s interest. Each day, decisions are made that affect the way transportation services are used.

==>>
The decisions of a firmto ship its freight by rail or truck, of an investor to start a newairline, of a consumer to purchase an automobile, of a state or municipal government to build a new highway or airport, of Congress to deny support to a new aircraft, and of a federal transportation agency to approve truck safety standards, are just a fewexamples of how transportation services evolve and a transportation system takes shape.

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==>>RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY FOR HIGHWAY LOCATION IN RURAL AREA<<==

==>>RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY FOR HIGHWAY LOCATION IN RURAL AREA<<==

Two methods;==>>

1. ==>>Conventional ground method.
2. ==>>Aerial photography.

1. CONVENTIONAL GROUND METHOD:==>>

In this method a field survey party inspects a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of the map in the field.
Intensive reconnaissance is very important for highway location in a new country as well as where completes abandonment and replacement of an existing road are planned.

1. Initially help is taken from already available maps, particularly topographic maps of the area so that most promising general route may be laid out for careful inspection on the ground.
2. Once a route selected on the map by crude but rapid survey method, a survey is made along the path   selected on the map.
3. PRIMARY CONTROLS==>> are then established after it which include
   
   1. Terminal of the road and intermediate points through which it must pass.
   2. Single mountain pass if no alternative exists.
   3. Small settlements, for secondary roads.
4. SECONDARY CONTROLS: ==>>Once primary controls are established the secondary controls are then considered which include;
   1. Drainage system.
   2. Mountain passes.
   3. Low points in ridges.
   4. Cost factors such as favorable and unfavorable soil conditions, the number and sizes of structures, the amount of excavation and embankment, alignment and grade.
5. POSSIBLE ALIGNMENT==>>
   1. In mountainous country with well defined summit ranges, there is usually a suitable pass along the drainage on both sides.
   2. The least expensive and frequently the straightest line may lie just above high water in streams often; however, the rise of valley may exceed the maximum permissible grade.
   3. At times a more favorable location lies on the hillside at some height above the stream.
6. MOUNTAIN LOCATION: ==>> On occasion, the route must climb from stream level to an adjoining pass or summit. The road must be long enough to provide for the required gain in elevation at max permissible rate.
7. Depending sooner from the level valley will result in climbing to summit in less grade and moderate curvature.
   Excessive use of switch backs should be avoided.
8. IN SNOW LOCATION: ==>> In sow areas locations should be confined to slopes exposed to the  sun in order to avoid icing on the roadway and ease snow removal problems..

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==>> CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAY<<==

                                    ==>> CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAY<<==

The construction and maintenance of highways are assumed by either the state, local communities, or a specifically designated agency. The actual plan of work in constructing, maintaining, or repairing highways is in the discretion of the highway authorities, whereas the state legislature determines their routes. The designation and location of a federally-aided state highway must be in accordance with federal and state law. A state, in its construction of a highway under the federal-aid primary system might be required to obtain the approval of federal agencies if the highway has a marked effect on the environment. The authorities may make provisions for the drainage of surface waters and for the building of ditches and culverts.
The construction and repair of public roads may be funded by general taxation, since the public roads are for a public purpose. The power to impose highway taxes vests in the legislature, and funds may be raised from vehicle taxes, gasoline taxes, property taxes, the sale of bonds, or by special assessments on the property for the amount necessary to cover the costs of construction or improvement.
In 1998 Congress enacted a law (Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century, Public Law (105-178) that required states to enact .08 as the blood alcohol count (BAC) needed to constitute the crime of driving while intoxicated. States that do not lower their BAC to meet this standard would lose federal highway funds. By 2003 two-thirds of the states had met this new federal standard.
The U.S. Transportation Department, established by Congress, works with the states to establish and maintain a national highway system (23 U.S.C.A. § 101 et seq.). Federal revenues pay for most of the national highway system. Congress may withhold portions of these funds if states do not enact certain laws related to highways or highway use and affecting inter-state commerce. For example, Congress may withhold funding if a state does not set the minimum age for alcohol consumption at 21 years; suspend, for at least six months, the driver's license of persons convicted of drug offenses; or prohibit driving under the influence of alcohol.


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==>> CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAY==>>

                                    ==>> CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAY==>>

The construction and maintenance of highways are assumed by either the state, local communities, or a specifically designated agency. The actual plan of work in constructing, maintaining, or repairing highways is in the discretion of the highway authorities, whereas the state legislature determines their routes. The designation and location of a federally-aided state highway must be in accordance with federal and state law. A state, in its construction of a highway under the federal-aid primary system might be required to obtain the approval of federal agencies if the highway has a marked effect on the environment. The authorities may make provisions for the drainage of surface waters and for the building of ditches and culverts.

The construction and repair of public roads may be funded by general taxation, since the public roads are for a public purpose. The power to impose highway taxes vests in the legislature, and funds may be raised from vehicle taxes, gasoline taxes, property taxes, the sale of bonds, or by special assessments on the property for the amount necessary to cover the costs of construction or improvement.

In 1998 Congress enacted a law (Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century, Public Law (105-178) that required states to enact .08 as the blood alcohol count (BAC) needed to constitute the crime of driving while intoxicated. States that do not lower their BAC to meet this standard would lose federal highway funds. By 2003 two-thirds of the states had met this new federal standard.

The U.S. Transportation Department, established by Congress, works with the states to establish and maintain a national highway system (23 U.S.C.A. § 101 et seq.). Federal revenues pay for most of the national highway system. Congress may withhold portions of these funds if states do not enact certain laws related to highways or highway use and affecting inter-state commerce. For example, Congress may withhold funding if a state does not set the minimum age for alcohol consumption at 21 years; suspend, for at least six months, the driver's license of persons convicted of drug offenses; or prohibit driving under the influence of alcohol.

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==>> TECHNICAL WORKING GROUP GUIDANCE ON TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE SELECTION CRITERIA AND PROCEDURE==>>

==>> TECHNICAL WORKING GROUP GUIDANCE ON TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE SELECTION CRITERIA AND PROCEDURE==>>

The Technical Working Group (TWG) established by the U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT) is led by representatives from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), Federal Transit Administration, and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. This cooperation among the various representatives of TWG represents a landmark effort to enhance communication among highway agencies, railroad companies and authorities, and governmental agencies involved in developing and implementing policies, rules, and regulations.
The TWG document is intended to provide guidance to assist engineers in the selection of traffic control devices or other measures at highway-rail grade crossings.¹¹⁸ It is not to be interpreted as policy or standards and is not mandatory. Any requirements that may be noted in the report are taken from the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) or another document identified by footnotes. A number of measures are included that may not have been supported by quantitative research but are being used by states and local agencies. These are included to inform practitioners of the array of tools being used or explored.
The introductory materials developed by the U.S. DOT TWG present an excellent perspective on the functioning of a highway-rail grade crossing. TWG notes that a highway-rail grade crossing differs from a highway-highway intersection in that the train always has the right of way. From this perspective, TWG indicates that the process for deciding what type of highway traffic control device is to be installed or even allowing that a highway-rail grade crossing should exist is essentially a two-step process, requiring consideration of what information the vehicle driver needs to be able to cross safely and whether the resulting driver response to a traffic control device is “compatible” with the intended system operating characteristics of the highway and railroad facility.
The TWG guidance outlines the technical considerations for satisfying motorist needs, including the role of stopping sight distance, approach (corner) sight distance, and clearing sight distance, and integrates this with highway system needs based upon the type and classification of the roadway as well as the allowable track speeds by class of track for the railway system. This handbook describes tools and analytical methodologies as well as treatments and criteria from a variety of sources for selecting treatments; the TWG document and its introduction should be consulted by persons involved with studies of grade crossing safety issues and improvements.
These treatments are provided for consideration at every public highway-rail grade crossing. Specific MUTCD signs and treatments are included for easy reference.

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==>>OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ECONOMY ==>>

 HIGHWAY ECONOMY

==>>OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ECONOMY 

            Governments have, of necessity, provided certain facilities that the private sector could not furnish. Among them are highways and public transportation. The intents of the expenditure for highways are to raise the level of the entire economy by providing for ready transportation of goods; to assist in problems of national defense; to make easier the provision of community services such as police and fire protection, medical care, schooling, and delivery of the mails; and to open added opportunities for recreation and travel. Highways benefit the landowner because ready access makes his property more valuable. Their improvement benefits the motor-vehicle user through reduced cost of vehicle operation, savings in time, reduction in accidents, and increased comfort and ease of driving. On the other hand, road improvements consume resources, including land, which might be used for other productive purposes by individuals or by government and the vehicles travelling produce air pollution and noise. From the point of  view of resources use, then, highways can be justified only if, in net sum, the consequences are favorable-that is, if cost reductions to highway users and other beneficiaries of the improvement exceed the costs, including some allowance for the return on the money invested. There are as has been indicated before, numerous other factors to be considered, but this chapter focuses on the economic or resource-use phases.

            Highway economy was under discussion over a century ago. W.M Gillespie, professor of civil engineering at Union College, in his Manual of the Principles and Practice of Road Marking, stated that “A minimum of expenses is of course highly desirable; but the road which is truly the cheapest is not the one which has cost the least money, but the one which makes the most profitable returns in proportion to the amount expended upon it.”

            The first detailed attention to highway economy developed about 40 years ago at lowa State College. It focused largely on the relative economy of various roads surfacing and, later, on the costs of motor-vehicle operation. The advent of the state wide planning surveys with the masses of data developed by them brought attention to many other factors of importance to the overall problem. Even so, attention to highway economy as a topic for detailed research and analysis has been small and sporadic. An accepting was that economic comparisons of alternative routes on the Interstate System were required by federal regulations. Many of these were based on the so-called Red-Book, developed by the AASHO Committee on the Highway Design. Further impetus for economic analysis on federal-aid projects many come through the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1970 (Sect. 186) which required that in 1972 the Federal Highway Administration.

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==>>HIGHWAY RESEARCH<<==

   ==>>Research for Highways<<==

==>>

            The Federal Highway Administration and other Federal agencies, the individual state highway departments, a number of universities, private or university related research groups and individuals, and many of the other organizations and associations mentioned here conduct research on highway problems. Many other agencies operating in parallel fields also have projects with strong highway implications. The output from these efforts is large; one estimate places it at 60 million pages per year. Thus, merely to find what research has been done or is under way is a difficult task. The Computer-based reporting by the Transportation Research Board, mentioned above, is offering at least a partial answer to the problem. Also, many reports are available through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va 22151.

           

The Conceive, finance, and properly organize, conduct, and report the findings of research is a difficult task, but its discussion is beyond the scope of this work.   

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==>>Construction Management and Quality Control for Road Works<<==

==>>Participants:

  Middle level rural road/road network planners, senior/mid level civil engineers and road engineer, road development project technical staff.


==>>Course Brief: 

This course is designed to enhance managerial and technical skills of the participants responsible for planning, managing and supervising road construction projects for more efficient, effective and high standard road construction works. It also focuses on up-to-date knowledge of quality standard and quality control issues of construction property as well as work processes in all construction phases that lead to better quality of road works.
Course content includes quality assurance in road works, contract management and inspection procedures, testing of construction materials such as concrete works, concrete aggregates, soil gradation, density and compaction, field compaction/density of subgrade, and asphalt material. The study visit and on-site study are  conducted to road construction sites with different level of development from excavation, forming embankment, compaction, pavement construction, etc., to observe the work processes and QC at each stage. Observe the construction equipment being used in construction, equipment of the field laboratory for quality evaluation, field density sampling and testing, asphalt pavement construction, etc.

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==>> CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAY<<==

==>> CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAY<<==

The construction and maintenance of highways are assumed by either the state, local communities, or a specifically designated agency. The actual plan of work in constructing, maintaining, or repairing highways is in the discretion of the highway authorities, whereas the state legislature determines their routes. The designation and location of a federally-aided state highway must be in accordance with federal and state law. A state, in its construction of a highway under the federal-aid primary system might be required to obtain the approval of federal agencies if the highway has a marked effect on the environment. The authorities may make provisions for the drainage of surface waters and for the building of ditches and culverts.
The construction and repair of public roads may be funded by general taxation, since the public roads are for a public purpose. The power to impose highway taxes vests in the legislature, and funds may be raised from vehicle taxes, gasoline taxes, property taxes, the sale of bonds, or by special assessments on the property for the amount necessary to cover the costs of construction or improvement.
In 1998 Congress enacted a law (Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century, Public Law (105-178) that required states to enact .08 as the blood alcohol count (BAC) needed to constitute the crime of driving while intoxicated. States that do not lower their BAC to meet this standard would lose federal highway funds. By 2003 two-thirds of the states had met this new federal standard.
The U.S. Transportation Department, established by Congress, works with the states to establish and maintain a national highway system (23 U.S.C.A. § 101 et seq.). Federal revenues pay for most of the national highway system. Congress may withhold portions of these funds if states do not enact certain laws related to highways or highway use and affecting inter-state commerce. For example, Congress may withhold funding if a state does not set the minimum age for alcohol consumption at 21 years; suspend, for at least six months, the driver's license of persons convicted of drug offenses; or prohibit driving under the influence of alcohol.


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==>> HIGHWAY AND URBAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING==>>

==>> HIGHWAY AND URBAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING==>>


In the United States before 1930, the primary attention of highway agencies was focused on establishing a system of all-weather rural roads. With this objective there seemed to be little need for “planning” the problem was to get the roads built.

            About 1930 the attitude toward planning began to change. City streets were in relative distress, and many rural highways were overloaded. The practice of using all federal aid and the bulk of state highway funds for the improvement of main rural highways needed examination. And yet what were the next most important groups of roads or streets? Should their improvement supersede the demand for reconstruction of much of the main system that was rapidly becoming inadequate for increased traffic?

            From the data at hand such questions were unanswerable. To get facts on which to base decision, the so-called “highway planning surveys” were under taken. Beginning with the Federal-Aid Act of 1934, Congress authorized expenditures not to exceed 1 ½ % of federal-aid funds apportioned to each state for the making of surveys, plans, and engineering investigations of projects for future construction. In addition, the usual “matching” provision was waived. By 1940, all the state highway departments were assembling the facts necessary to develop long range highway- improvement programs.

            Today, planning has become a basic activity of every major highway or transportation agency. Data assembled by the planning departments are used to develop programs for the years ahead, and in almost administrative decisions. New planning procedures are under continuous development; in many of these activities, scientific applications such as special instruments, statistical methods, and computer analysis are replacing the cumbersome and time consuming hand-labour methods of earlier days. But in spite of developments such as these, the planning premises and approaches of highway agencies and the proposals for highway improvements stemming from them are being challenged on many fronts. As a result, some projects, particularly urban freeways, are not being constructed at all and others have been substantially delayed. For example: a 1971 study by the Texas Highway Department indicated that an average of 8 years and 5 mo elapsed between authorization to proceed with a project and its opening to traffic, and even longer lead times are anticipated when the environmental impact statements called for by the Environmental protection Act are required. 

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